(C) 2011 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Previous studies have suggested that polyfunctional mucosal CD8+ T-cell responses may be a correlate of protection in HIV controllers. Mucosal T-cell breadth and/or specificity may also contribute to defining protective GNS-1480 concentration responses. In this study, rectal CD8(+) T-cell responses to HIV Gag, Env, and Nef were mapped at the peptide level in four subject groups: elite controllers (n = 16; viral load [VL], <75 copies/ml), viremic controllers (n = 14;

VL, 75 to 2,000 copies/ml), noncontrollers (n = 14; VL, >10,000 copies/ml), and antiretroviral-drug-treated subjects (n = 8; VL, <75 copies/ml). In all subject groups, immunodominant CD8(+) T-cell responses were generally shared by blood and mucosa, although there were exceptions. In HIV controllers, responses to HLA-B27- and HLA-B57-restricted epitopes were common to both tissues, and their magnitude (in spot-forming cells [SFC] per million) was significantly greater than those of responses restricted by other alleles. Furthermore, peptides recognized by T cells in both blood and rectal mucosa, termed “”concordant,”" elicited higher median numbers of SFC than discordant responses. In magnitude as well

as breadth, HIV Gag-specific responses, particularly those targeting p24 and p7, dominated in controllers. Responses in noncontrollers were more evenly distributed among epitopes in Gag,

Env, and PKC412 Avelestat (AZD9668) Nef. Viremic controllers showed significantly broader mucosal Gag-specific responses than other groups. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that (i) Gag-specific responses dominate in mucosal tissues of HIV controllers; (ii) there is extensive overlap between CD8(+) T cells in blood and mucosal tissues, with responses to immunodominant epitopes generally shared by both sites; and (iii) mucosal T-cell response breadth alone cannot account for immune control.”
“Subsecond fluctuations in dopamine (dopamine transients) in the nucleus accumbens are often time-locked to rewards and cues and provide an important learning signal during reward processing. As the mesolimbic dopamine system undergoes dynamic changes during adolescence in the rat, it is possible that dopamine transients encode reward and stimulus presentations differently in adolescents. However, to date no measurements of dopamine transients in awake adolescents have been made. Thus, we used fast scan cyclic voltammetry to measure dopamine transients in the nucleus accumbens core of male rats (29-30 days of age) at baseline and with the presentation of various stimuli that have been shown to trigger dopamine release in adult rats. We found that dopamine transients were detectable in adolescent rats and occurred at a baseline rate similar to adult rats (71-72 days of age).

Our results further indicated that targeting of the IKK/NF-kappa B pathway may be useful in SCI therapy. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The Lac repressor has been used as a tool to understand protein-DNA recognition for many years. Recent experiments have demonstrated the ability of the Lac repressor to control gene expression in various eukaryotic systems, making the quest for an arsenal of protein-DNA binding partners desirable for potential therapeutic applications. Here, we present the results of the most exhaustive screen of Lac repressor-DNA

binding partners to date, resulting in the elucidation of functional rules buy TPX-0005 for Lac-DNA binding. Even within the confines of a single protein-DNA scaffold, modes of binding of different protein-DNA partners are sufficiently diverse so as to prevent elucidation of generalized rules for recognition for a single protein, much less an entire protein family.”
“Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), the most common form of hemorrhagic stroke, exhibits the highest acute mortality and the worst long-term prognosis of all stroke subtypes. Unfortunately, treatment options for ICH are lacking due

in part to a lack of feasible therapeutic targets. Inflammatory activation is associated with neurological deficits in pre-clinical ICH models and with patient deterioration after clinical ICH. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that R-7050, a novel OSI-744 chemical structure cell permeable triazoloquinoxaline inhibitor of the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) complex, attenuates neurovascular injury after ICH in mice. Up to 2 h post-injury administration of R-7050 significantly reduced blood-brain

barrier opening and attenuated edema development at 24 h post-ICH. Neurological outcomes were also improved over the first 3 days after injury. In contrast, R-7050 did not reduce hematoma RANTES volume, suggesting the beneficial effects of TNFR inhibition were downstream of clot formation/resolution. These data suggest a potential clinical utility for TNFR antagonists as an adjunct therapy to reduce neurological injury and improve patient outcomes after ICH. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Protein export mediated by the general secretory Sec system in Escherichia coli proceeds by a dynamic transfer of a precursor polypeptide from the chaperone SecB to the SecA ATPase motor of the translocon and subsequently into and through the channel of the membrane-embedded SecYEG heterotrimer. The complex between SecA and SecB is stabilized by several separate sites of contact. Here we have demonstrated directly an interaction between the N-terminal residues 2 through 11 of SecA and the C-terminal 13 residues of SecB by isothermal titration calorimetry and analytical sedimentation velocity centrifugation.

Here we show that human immortalized C13NJ microglia express LPA receptor subtypes LPA(1), LPA(2), and LPA(3) on mRNA and protein level. LPA activation of C13NJ cells induced Rho and extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation and enhanced cellular ATP production. In addition, LPA induced process retraction, cell spreading, led to LOXO-101 molecular weight pronounced changes of the actin Cytoskeleton and reduced cell motility, which could be reversed by inhibition of Rho activity. To get an indication about LPA-induced global

alterations in protein expression patterns a 2-D DIGE/LC-ESI-MS proteomic approach was applied. On the proteome level the most prominent changes in response to LPA were observed for glycolytic enzymes and proteins regulating cell motility

and/or cytoskeletal dynamics. The present findings suggest that naturally occurring LPA is a potent regulator of microglia biology. This might be of particular relevance in the pathophysiological context of neurodegenerative disorders where LPA concentrations can be significantly elevated in the CNS.”
“Introduction: Preclinical studies and first positron emission tomography (PET) imaging studies were performed using N-[4-[6-(isopropylamino)pyrimidin-4-yl]-1,3-thiazol-2-yl]-4[C-11]methoxy-N-methylbenzamide ([C-11]ITMM) to map metabotropic glutamate receptor type 1 (mGluR1) in the human brain.

Methods: [C-11]ITMM was synthesized by O-methylation of the desmethyl precursor with [C-11]methyl triflate in the presence of NaOH at room temperature. In Selleck 4SC-202 vitro selectivity and brain distributions of[C-11]ITMM in

mice were characterized. Radiation absorbed-dose by [C-11]ITMM in humans was calculated from mouse distribution data. Acute toxicity of ITMM at 4.72 mg/kg body weight (>74,000-fold clinical equivalent dose of [C-11]ITMM) was evaluated. Mutagenicity of ITMM was studied by the Ames test. Clinical PET imaging of mGluR1 with [C-11]ITMM was performed in a healthy volunteer.

Results: ITMM had low activity for a 28-standard receptor binding profile. Regional brain uptake of [C-11]ITMM in mice was heterogeneous and consistent with known mGluR1 distributions. The radiation absorbed-dose by [C-11]ITMM in humans was sufficiently low oxyclozanide for clinical use, and no acute toxicity or mutagenicity of ITMM occurred. A 90-min dynamic PET scan with [C-11]ITMM in a healthy volunteer showed a gradual increase of radioactivity in the cerebellum. Total distribution volume of [C-11]ITMM was highest in the cerebellum, followed by thalamus, cerebral cortex, and striatum; regional differences in brain radioactivity corresponded to the mGluR1 distribution in the brain. Peripherally, [C-11]ITMM was stable in humans: 60% of the plasma radioactivity remained in the unchanged form for 60 min.

Methods and results In the elevated plus-maze (EPM), flumazenil (FMZ), a BDZ antagonist, partially blocked the anxiolytic-like effect of DST-3 or STY-4 and STY-7, but not DST-1. Using electroencephalogram (EEG), EA protected against pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced convulsion in rats, an effect partially blocked by FMZ, suggesting the participation of the BDZ-bs in this action. EA also protected against the maximal electroshock (MES)-induced convulsions in mice, a profile distinct from diazepam (DZP). DST and STY compounds inhibited the [(3)H]-flunitrazepam ([(3)H]-FNZ) binding to BDZ-bs in rat cortical PLX3397 synaptosomes with K (i) higher

than 100 mu M (DST-1), 41.7 mu M (DST-2), 35.8 mu M (DST-3), 90.3 mu M (STY-4), 31.0 mu M (STY-5) and 70.0 mu M (STY-7). In the saturation assay, DST-3 and STY-7 competitively inhibited the binding of [(3)H]-FNZ to BDZ-bs with a significant decrease in apparent affinity (K (d)) and no change in maximal binding (B (max)).

Conclusions The present data support a partial BDZ-bs mediation of the anxiolytic-like and anticonvulsant effects of Selleck NU7441 EA of P. sabulosa and its main isolated constituents, DST and STY.”
“Objectives. We aim to understand how human, social, and cultural capitals are associated with the volunteer process, that is, engagement (starting), intensity

(number of hours), and cessation (stopping), among older adults.

Method. Data from the 2000 through 2008 Health and Retirement Study and the 2001 through 2009 Consumption and Activity Mail Survey provide a sample of 4,526 respondents. Random-effects pooled time series Forskolin concentration analyses incorporate not only the presence of various types of capital but also the quality of that capital.

Results. Human and cultural capitals were positively associated with increased volunteer

involvement. Effects of social capital (relationships in the family, employment status, and the community) depended on the quality of the relationships, not necessarily on their presence alone.

Discussion. Results suggest that bolstering older adults’ capitals, particularly among lower socioeconomic status groups, can increase volunteer engagement and intensity and reduce cessation. Additionally, a variety of organizational policies including respite programs for caregivers and employer policies allowing employees to reduce their work hours might indirectly affect participation rates and commitment. Potential pools of volunteers exist in families, workplaces, and religious organizations, but more research is necessary to identify how to recruit and retain individuals in social networks where volunteer participatory rates are low.”
“The spatial organization of the genome within the nucleus is thought to contribute to genome functions.

Here we summarize the current state of knowledge and emerging concepts regarding the role of GPR40 in regulating glucose homeostasis.”
“Objective: The endocannabinoid system is involved in the regulation of appetite, food intake and energy balance.

Methods: To study possible differences in CB(1) and CB(2) mRNA expression in eating disorders, 20 patients with anorexia nervosa (AN), 23 with bulimia nervosa (BN) and 26 healthy women were enrolled into the trial (Homocysteine and Eating Disorders, HEaD).

Results:

We found significantly higher levels of CB, receptor mRNA in the blood of patients with AN (Delta CT: -3.9 (1.0); KW: 11.31; P = 0.003) and BN (Delta CT -3.7 (1.7)) when compared to controls (Delta CT. -4.6 (0.6); Dunn’s test AN vs. Controls: P < 0.05; BN vs. Controls: P < 0.001) measured by quantitative real-time CHIR98014 price PCR. No differences were found regarding the expression of CB(2) receptor mRNA. Higher CB(1) receptor expression was associated with lower scores in

several eating disorder inventory-2 (EDI-2) this website subscales including perfectionism, impulse regulation and drive for thinness.

Conclusion: Our finding of elevated CB(1)-receptor expression in AN and BN adds further evidence to the hypothesis of impaired endocannabinoid signaling in eating disorders. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Background: The oxidative stress-responsive kinase 1 (OSR1) participates in the WNK-(with no K) kinase dependent regulation

of renal salt excretion and blood pressure. Little is known, however, about the role of OSR1 in the regulation of further renal transport systems. The present study analyzed the effect of OSR1 on NaPiIIa, the major renal tubular phosphate transporter. Methods: Immunohistochemistry and confocal microscopy were employed to determine renal localization of OSR1 and NaPiIIa. To elucidate the effect of OSR on NaPiIIa activity, cRNA encoding NaPiIIa was injected into Xenopus oocytes Pyruvate dehydrogenase with or without additional injection of cRNA encoding OSR1, and phosphate transport was estimated from phosphate-induced currents determined with dual electrode voltage clamp. To elucidate the in vivo significance of OSR1 serum phosphate and hormone concentrations as well as urinary phosphate output of mice carrying one allele of WNK-resistant OSR1 (osr1(tg/+)) were compared to the respective values of wild type mice (osr1(+/+)). Results: NaPiIIa and OSR1 were both expressed in proximal renal tubule cells. Coexpression of OSR1 significantly up-regulated phosphate-induced currents in NaPiIIa-expressing Xenopus oocytes. Despite decreased serum phosphate concentration urinary phosphate excretion was significantly increased and NaPiIIa protein abundance in the brush border membrane significantly reduced in osr1(tg/+) mice as compared to osr1(+/+) mice.

Past studies have characterized the deleterious effects of arsenic on the various functions of cardiovascular, pulmonary, immunological, respiratory, endocrine and neurological systems. Other research has demonstrated Geneticin an elevated risk of a multitude of cancers and increased rates of psychopathology, even at very low levels of arsenic exposure. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis represents a multisite integration center that regulates a wide scope of biological and physiological processes: breakdown within this system can generate an array of far-reaching effects, making it an intriguing candidate for arsenic-mediated damage.

Using a mouse model, we examined the effects of perinatal

exposure to 50 ppb sodium arsenate on the functioning of the HPA axis through the assessment of corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF), proopiomelanocortin (Pomc) mRNA, adrenocorticotrophin hormone (ACTH), corticosterone (CORT), 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase Type 1 (11 beta-HSD 1), and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) protein and mRNA. Compared to Selleckchem VE 822 controls, we observed that the perinatal arsenic-exposed offspring exhibit an increase in hypothalamic CRF, altered CORT secretion both at baseline and in response to a stressor, decreased hippocampal 11 beta-HSD 1 and altered subcellular GR distribution in the hypothalamus. These data indicate significant HPA axis impairment at post-natal day 35 resulting from perinatal exposure to 50

ppb sodium arsenate. Our findings suggest that the dysregulation of this critical regulatory axis could underlie important molecular and cognitive pathology observed following exposure to arsenic. (C) 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“Phosphorylation is one of the most important PTMs and is estimated to occur on 30% of the mammalian proteome. its perturbed regulation has been implicated in many pathologies. The rarity of phosphotyrosine compared with phosphoserine or phosphothreonine is prompting the Pregnenolone development of more sensitive approaches because proteomic technologies that are currently used to assess tyrosine phosphorylation in proteins are inadequate, identifying only a fraction of the predicted tyrosine phosphoproteome. Here we describe the development of a reproducible, high-sensitivity methodology for the detection and mapping of phosphotyrosine residues by MS. The anti-phosphotyrosine antibody 4G10 was coupled covalently to super para-magnetic beads or by affinity to super para-magnetic beads with protein G covalently attached. Using this approach, we successfully enriched phosphotyrosine peptides mixed with non-phosphorylated peptides at a ratio of up to 1:200, enabling detection at a level representing the highest sensitivity reported for tyrosine phosphorylation.

pl.)-induced nociception was reduced by myricitrin (100 mg/kg, i.p.) and camphor (7.6 mg/kg,

s.c.) in 43 +/- 10% and 57 +/- 8%, respectively. Myricitrin (30-100 mg/kg, i.p.) and amiloride (100 mg/kg, i.p.) inhibited nociceptive responses induced by acidified saline (pH 5/paw i.pl.), with ID(50) of 22.0(16.1-30.0) mg/kg and inhibition of 71 +/- 6% and 64 +/- 5%, respectively. Moreover, myricitrin (10-30 mg/kg. i.p.) and ruthenium red (3 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly reduced the nociception induced by menthol (1.2 mu mol/paw i.pl.) with the mean ID(50) of 2.4 (1.5-3.7) mg/kg and inhibition of 95 +/- 3% and 51 +/- 7%, respectively. In addition, myricitrin administration (30 and 100 mg/kg, i.p.) markedly reduced menthol-induced mechanical allodynia. However, myricitrin (100 mg/kg, i.p.) prevented (only in time of 60 min) cold allodynia induced by menthol. Collectively, the present results extend prior www.selleckchem.com/products/CP-690550.html data and show that myricitrin promotes potent antinociception, an action that is likely mediated by an inhibition of the activation of nociceptors by bradykinin and TRPs agonist (i.e. cinnamaldehyde, acidified saline and menthol), probably via inhibition of PKC pathways. Thus, myricitrin could constitute an attractive molecule of interest for

the development of new analgesic drugs. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Peptides derived from the “”stem”" of dengue virus (DV) type 2 (DV2) envelope (E) protein inhibit DV2 infectivity, targeting a late-stage fusion intermediate. We Selleck TH-302 show here that stem peptides from all DV serotypes cross-inhibit DV1 to DV4 but that corresponding peptides derived from related flaviviruses do not. This failure to inhibit infection is not due to poor interaction with the E protein but rather to loss of association with the virion membrane. Residues 442 to 444 of

the stem are determinants of inhibition; increasing hydrophobicity in this region increases Docetaxel inhibitory strength. These results support a two-step model of how stem-derived peptides inhibit viral entry.”
“Viewing of emotional pictures elicits two event-related potentials (ERPs) to emotional versus neutral pictures: an early posterior negativity (EPN) and a late positive potential (LPP). Because it is unresolved whether these indexes of emotional processing are reduced to task-irrelevant pictures at fixation, negative and neutral pictures from the International Affective Picture Set (IAPS) were shown at fixation together with 6 letters that surrounded the pictures. In separate tasks, participants were instructed to attend either the pictures or the letters. When the pictures were task relevant, results showed an EPN and LPP. In contrast, when the pictures were task irrelevant, the EPN was eliminated and the LPP reduced. Performance was high in both tasks (hit rates > 87%), but somewhat better when the pictures were relevant.

For conditions with unequal amplitudes, the arm moving at the smaller amplitude was predicted to be more strongly affected by the contralateral see more arm than vice Versa. This prediction was based on neurophysiological considerations and the HKB model of coupled oscillators. Participants performed rhythmic bimanual forearm movements at prescribed amplitude relations. After a brief mechanical perturbation of one arm, the relaxation process back to the initial coordination pattern was examined. This analysis focused on phase adaptations in the unperturbed arm, as these reflect the degree to which the movements of this arm were affected by the coupling influences stemming from the contralateral

(perturbed) arm. The thus obtained index of coupling (IC) reflected the relative contribution of the unperturbed arm to the relaxation process. As predicted IC was larger when the perturbed arm moved at a larger amplitude than

did the unperturbed arm, indicating that coupling strength scaled with movement amplitude. This result was discussed in relation to previous research regarding sources of asymmetry in coupling strength and the effects of amplitude disparity on interlimb coordination. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Central motor conduction time (CMCT) is usually abnormally prolonged in leg muscles of patients with pure hereditary spastic paraparesis (PHSP). One consequence of such abnormality should be an abnormal timing in the modulation of segmental reflexes, which might be more relevant for the pathophysiology of spasticity-related gait disturbances than just the CMCT PI3K inhibitor delay. We examined the effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) on the soleus H reflex in 13 control subjects and 11 PHSP patients using a conditioning (TMS) and test (H reflex) paradigm. Interstimulus interval (ISI) was 0-100 ms in steps of 10 ms. The

amplitude of the H reflex at each interval was expressed as percentage of the control H reflex and the conditioned curves were compared between control subjects and patients. In control subjects, TMS-induced facilitation of the H reflex with two well-defined phases: early (ISIs 10 and 20 ms) and late (ISIs 70-90 ms). In patients, the mafosfamide early phase of facilitation was significantly reduced, while there was facilitation at 40 ms that was not present in control subjects. However, neither the characteristics of the MEP nor the differential modulation of the H reflex correlated significantly with clinical measures of motor dysfunction. Our results indicate an abnormal effect of TMS on the H reflex in PHSP patients. This suggests that the excitability of interneurons and soleus motoneurons is not modified in tune with the arrival of descending inputs. Desynchronization of the descending volley may contribute to both the lack of early facilitation and the presence of abnormal facilitatory phases. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

38 mJ/m(2)). Additionally, healthy animals (n = 30) with normal myocardium were studied. Angiogenesis, ventricular function upregulation of growth factors, and brain natriuretic peptide levels were analyzed.

Results: Histologic analysis revealed significant angiogenesis 6 weeks (treatment group: 8.2 +/- 3.7 vs control group: 2.9 +/- 1.9 vessels

per field, P = .016) and 14 weeks ( treatment group: 7.1 +/- 3.1 vs control group: 3.2 +/- 1.8 vessels per field, Barasertib purchase P = .011) after shock wave treatment. In the treatment group ventricular function improved throughout the follow-up period ( 6 weeks: 37.4% +/- 9% [P <. 001] and 14 weeks: 39.5% +/- 9% [P <. 001]). No improvement of ventricular function was observed in the control group (6 weeks: 28.6% +/- 5% and 14 weeks: 21.4% +/- 5%). Rat brain natriuretic peptide 45 levels were lower in the treatment group compared with those in the control group 6 and 14 weeks after treatment. Vascular endothelial growth factor, Fms-related tyrosine kinase 1, and placental growth factor levels were upregulated after 24 and 48 hours and 7 days in the treatment group. No effects on healthy myocardium were observed.

Conclusion: Direct epicardial low-energy shock wave therapy induces angiogenesis and improves ventricular function in a rodent model of ischemic heart failure.”
“Multiple studies indicate that adenosine

released in the basal forebrain during prolonged wakefulness could affect recovery sleep. It is still unclear which of adenosine receptors provide its sleep-modulating effects in the basal forebrain. Sapanisertib mw We infused adenosine A(1) and A(2A) receptors antagonists into the rat basal forebrain during sleep deprivation and compared characteristics of recovery non-rapid eye movement (non-REM) sleep (its amount and non-REM sleep delta power) after sleep deprivation, and after sleep deprivation combined with perfusion of antagonists. A(1) receptor antagonist significantly reduced recovery sleep amount and

delta power, whereas A(2A) receptor antagonist had no effect on recovery sleep. We conclude that adenosine can promote recovery non-REM sleep when acting through A(1) receptors in the basal forebrain. NeuroReport 20:1013-1018 Tacrolimus (FK506) (C) 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.”
“Objective: It is generally accepted that patients who require biventricular assist device support have poorer outcomes than those requiring isolated left ventricular assist device support. However, it is unknown how the timing of biventricular assist device insertion affects outcomes. We hypothesized that planned biventricular assist device insertion improves survival compared with delayed conversion of left ventricular assist device support to biventricular assist device support.

Furthermore, the SDF-1 gradient may be positively primed/modulated by cationic peptides (C3a anaphylatoxin and cathelicidin) and, as previously demonstrated, HSPCs respond robustly even to very low SDF-1 gradients in the presence of priming factors. In this review, we discuss the role of bioactive lipids in stem cell trafficking and the consequences of HSPC priming by cationic peptides. Together, these phenomena support a picture in which the SDF-1-CXCR4 axis modulates homing, BM retention and mobilization of HSPCs in a more complex way than previously envisioned. Leukemia (2012) 26, 63-72; doi:10.1038/leu.2011.242;

published online 2 September 2011″
“The components of the bacterial division machinery assemble to form a dynamic ring at mid-cell that drives cytokinesis. The nature of most division proteins and their assembly pathway is known. Our knowledge about the biochemical selleck compound activities and protein interactions of some key division elements, including those responsible for correct ring positioning, has progressed considerably during the past decade. These developments, together with new imaging

and membrane reconstitution technologies, have triggered the ‘bottom-up’ synthetic approach aiming at reconstructing bacterial division in the test tube, which is required to support conclusions derived from cellular C-X-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CXCR-7) and molecular analysis. Here, we describe recent advances in reconstituting Escherichia coil minimal systems able to reproduce essential functions, such MLN8237 in vitro as the initial steps of division (proto-ring assembly) and one of the main positioning mechanisms (Min oscillating system), and discuss future perspectives and experimental challenges.”
“Peripheral nerve injury may lead to neuroadaptive changes of cellular signals in spinal cord that are thought to contribute to central mechanisms underlying neuropathic pain. Here we used a 2-DE-based proteomic technique

to determine the global expression changes of synaptosome-associated proteins in spinal cord dorsal horn after unilateral fifth spinal nerve injury (SNI). The fifth lumbar dorsal horns ipsilateral to SNI or sham surgery were harvested on day 14 post-surgery, and the total soluble and synaptosomal fractions were isolated. The proteins derived from the synaptosomal fraction were resolved by 2-DE. We identified 27 proteins that displayed different expression levels after SNI, including proteins involved in transmission and modulation of noxious information, cellular metabolism, membrane receptor trafficking, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and degeneration. Six of the 27 proteins were chosen randomly and further validated in the synaptosomal fraction by Western blot analysis.