We estimate the vertical extent of the retinally fixed ‘search zones’ as < 0.6°

at 14° eccentricity, suggesting that most V1 neurons must be tuned to near-zero vertical disparity. We also show that performance on our stereo task at 14° eccentricity is affected by the pattern of vertical disparity beyond 20° eccentricity, even though this is irrelevant to the task. Performance is best when vertical disparities within and beyond 20° eccentricity both indicate the same convergence angle (even if not the physical angle), than when the pattern of vertical disparity across the visual field RAD001 chemical structure is globally inconsistent with any single convergence angle. This novel effect of the periphery may indicate cooperative interactions between disparity-selective neurons activated by the same eye postures. “
“We reported previously that plateau potentials buy FK866 mediated by extrasynaptic N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) can be induced either by synaptic stimulation in the presence of glutamate transporter antagonist or by iontophoresis of NMDA in rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. To examine whether the plateau potentials are accompanied by an elevation of intracellular Ca2+ and to determine the source of Ca2+ elevation, we performed Ca2+ imaging during the plateau potential. Neurons were loaded with Ca2+ indicator fluo-4, and the plateau potentials were

generated either synaptically in the presence of glutamate transporter antagonist or by iontophoretically applying NMDA. We have found that a transient elevation in intracellular Ca2+ accompanies the plateau potential. The synaptically

induced plateau potential and the Ca2+ elevation were blocked by 5,7-dichlorokynurenic acid (5,7-dCK), an antagonist for the glycine-binding sites of NMDAR. A mixture of Cd2+ and tetrodotoxin did not block NMDA-induced plateau potentials, but completely abolished 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase the accompanying Ca2+ elevation in both the presence and absence of Mg2+ ions in the bathing solution. The NMDA-induced plateau potential was blocked by further adding 5,7-dCK. Our results show that the NMDAR-mediated plateau potential is accompanied by elevation of intracellular Ca2+ that is primarily caused by the influx of Ca2+ through voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. “
“Previous studies indicate that the astroglial glutamate–glutamine shuttle may be involved in acute pulpal inflammatory pain by influencing central sensitization induced in nociceptive neurons in the trigeminal subnucleus caudalis [the medullary dorsal horn (MDH)] by application of an inflammatory irritant to the rat tooth pulp. The aim of this study was to test if intrathecal application to the rat medulla of the astroglial glutamine synthetase inhibitor methionine sulfoximine (MSO) can influence the central sensitization of MDH nociceptive neurons and the animal’s associated behaviour that are manifested in a model of chronic pulpitis pain induced by exposure of a mandibular molar pulp.

The present study was limited by its ecological nature, and consequently we were unable to identify factors that caused the increased and sustained supply of ophthalmic chloramphenicol OTC. It was likely that the removal of barriers such as the need to make a GP appointment, improved access and cost of travelling to and from doctor’s surgery provided sufficient incentive for people to practise self-care,[3] even if individuals had to purchase the treatment themselves in a country with no co-payment prescription levy. Sales could have been stimulated by promotional activities and, as a result, improved the public’s awareness of conjunctivitis and product availability. There was

a temporal relationship between OTC sales and items supplied on prescription, suggesting that patients with similar presentations were turning up at both community Crizotinib pharmacies and GP surgeries and were supplied ophthalmic chloramphenicol. This result needs to be interpreted with caution as it only

serves to demonstrate an association between the two variables rather than providing an explanation for them. To date there have been no published studies evaluating the appropriateness of prescribing or OTC supply of ophthalmic chloramphenicol in primary care, even if such criteria could be defined. Contrary to the trend of reduced prescribing for ophthalmic chloramphenicol reported in England,[26] the number of prescribed items for both eye drops and ointment in Wales remained similar despite the high volume of OTC sales following reclassification. RG7420 in vivo This observation could have been influenced by the abolition of the NHS prescription charge in Wales (April 2007), which may have encouraged patients to obtain a free prescription from their doctor. In England, where prescription co-payment was still in place, it was cheaper for patients who paid the prescription charge to purchase ophthalmic chloramphenicol OTC given that the average price of eye drops and ointment were £4.72 and £5.24, respectively, whereas the cost of a prescription item was £6.50 in 2005 and £7.40 in 2011. Our data demonstrated

that during the 12-month period (June 2007 to May 2008) after the abolition of prescription charge in Wales there was a small but distinguishable increase in eye drops dispensed on prescription, which PD184352 (CI-1040) is consistent with the observation made by others of an increase in prescription items following abolition of the co-payment charge.[27] This was not observed with the ointment over the same period but is probably because the market had not matured or stabilised. It has been suggested that the decrease in the number of items prescribed for chloramphenicol eye drops and ointment in England was due to a change in the management of conjunctivitis from empirical prescribing to no or delayed prescribing.[24] Whether or not prescribers in Wales adopted this approach is unknown.

Participation of the plant vacuole in the early events of gravitropism has been suggested in Arabidopsis thaliana (Morita et al., 2002). Moreover, in the mushroom Flammulina velutipes, it has been observed that the fastest ultrastructural response to changes in the direction of the gravitational force is the accumulation of cytosolic vesicles contributing to the expansion of the central vacuole, which consequently causes the differential enlargement of cells (Kern & Hock, 1996). The product encoded by the upregulated clone U043 (Table

2) was highly homologous (E-value: 10−32) to the subtilisin-like serine protease (subtilase) SPM1 of the fungus Magnaporthe grisea; this protein was predicted to be translocated into the endoplasmic reticulum and to be localized in the vacuole (Fukiya et al., 2002). Fungal vacuole subtilases found in Saccharomyces see more cerevisiae MLN8237 and Aspergillus fumigatus are involved in spore morphogenesis (Moehle et al., 1987) and conidiogenesis (Reichard et al., 2000), respectively. These data could indicate that the product encoded by U043 might be localized in the vacuole or be involved in the morphogenesis of cells or spores

in P. ostreatus. It has been proposed that the ornithine cycle enzymes including arginase in the fruiting bodies of mushrooms are important for urea accumulation because members of the family Agaricaceae are known to accumulate substantial amounts of urea in their fruiting bodies (Hammond, 1979), which are required for the production of basidiospores (Donker Rutecarpine & van As, 1999). In the mushroom Agaricus bisporus, arginase expression was found to correlate with the urea contents in the tissues of fruiting bodies (Wagemaker

et al., 2005). The clone D039, which encodes a putative arginase, was slightly downregulated under simulated microgravity condition (Fig. 2), possibly implying that urea requirement might decrease under simulated microgravity. There seemed to be more downregulated than upregulated genes, despite the fact that we analyzed more than twice as many upregulated clones (108 samples) as downregulated clones (43 samples) (refer to the column ‘Number of genes cloned,’Tables 2 and 3). Based on the effects of the microgravity conditions, the view that the microgravity-induced decrease in gravitational stress might affect gene expressions is still under discussion. In an actual spaceflight, in low-Earth orbit, it was found that the effects of microgravity negatively impacted the immune system of mammalian cells (Lesnyak et al., 1996), and some metabolic activities in bacterial cells were found to be decreased (Nickerson et al., 2003).

Arsenate was added to M. penetrans cells to determine whether ATP hydrolysis by a motor-associated component directly provides

energy for gliding, as proposed for M. mobile, upon whose gliding motility arsenate has an immediate negative impact (Jaffe et al., 2004). M. penetrans continued to glide AZD4547 purchase in the presence of 50 mM arsenate, five times the amount in which growth was prevented (see above), at incubation times ranging from 1 to 8 h. In 50 mM arsenate, the gliding speeds of both M. mobile [F(1, 144) = 13331, P < 0.0003] and M. penetrans [F(1, 144) = 7670, P < 0.0003] were significantly reduced. However, the 37% decrease in M. penetrans was much smaller than that in M. mobile, which exhibited an 89% decrease in speed (Fig. 2), essentially in agreement with the observations of an absence of M. mobile cells moving faster than 10% of normal gliding speed after 10 min under similar conditions (Jaffe et al., 2004). Although the change in speed of M. penetrans was statistically significant, the moderate value of the decrease and the continued movement of the cells after 8 h (not shown) suggest that direct inhibition of the motor by ATP depletion was unlikely. Increasing the arsenate concentration fivefold further, to 250 mM, had a negligible effect on M. penetrans motility (Fig. 2). Thus, ATP hydrolysis is an unlikely energy see more source for gliding by M. penetrans. The

presence of membrane potential has been reported in a variety of mycoplasma species (Benyoucef et al., 1981; Schiefer & Schummer, 1982). To determine whether PMF supplies the energy needed for M. penetrans gliding motility, we observed motility

in the presence of the ionophore CCCP, which collapses the proton gradient. Cells were incubated for 1 h in the presence of 10 mM CCCP in DMSO and in PBS-G2K containing the same volume of DMSO used in the test buffer. After 1 h, gliding speed actually increased by 29% compared to the control buffer (P < 0.0001) (Fig. 2), ruling out PMF as an energy source for gliding motility of M. penetrans. check details To test SMF as a potential energy source for M. penetrans gliding, cells were observed in the presence of amiloride, an inhibitor of Na+/H+ antiporters and sodium channels, which competes with Na+ in the medium (Benos, 1982). Mycoplasma penetrans gliding speed was not significantly affected by 1 h of incubation in amiloride (P = 0.6) (Fig. 2), ruling out SMF as an energy source. To determine the role of thermal energy in the motility mechanism of M. penetrans, we analyzed its gliding speed under conditions of differing temperature. If radiant energy from ambient heat is a significant power source, then we would predict increased speed even at temperatures in excess of those normally encountered physiologically. We analyzed gliding speed at temperatures ranging from 30 to 40 °C and pH levels ranging from 5.8 to 8.8 (Fig. 3). Speed increased with temperature, but at acidic or alkaline pH, the trend was less distinct.

Tsror et al. (2001) reported that the application of Trichoderma harzianum in furrows reduced the incidence of black scurf significantly as compared with its application to the soil surface, which showed a relatively small effect. In summary, our results demonstrated that all fungi tested are effective for controlling R. solani diseases on potato. In our view, some constraints that could limit their effectiveness are rhizosphere

complexity and soil environment. In this context, their adaptability to field conditions, their toxicity for humans and animals as formulated products, and their time of application should be studied. This Opaganib cost work was supported by the NSERC discovery grant to M.H. We thank the Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI) for confocal microscopy facility support. We also thank Amandine Honore for technical assistance and Dr David Morse for comments and English editing. “
“This study was designed to evaluate gene expression patterns of the planktonic and biofilm cells of Staphylococcus aureus and SalmonellaTyphimurium in trypticase soy broth adjusted to pH 5.5 and pH 7.3. The planktonic Talazoparib and biofilm cells of multiple antibiotic-resistant S. aureus (S. aureusR) and S. Typhimurium (S. TyphimuriumR) were more resistant to β-lactams than those of antibiotic-susceptible

S. aureus (S. aureusS) and S. Typhimurium (S. TyphimuriumS) at pH 5.5 and pH 7.3. The relative gene expression levels of norB, norC, and mdeA genes were increased by 7.0-, 4.7-, and 4.6-fold, respectively,

in the biofilm cells of S. aureusS grown at pH 7.3, while norB, norC, mdeA, sec, seg, sei, sel, sem, sen, and seo genes were stable in the biofilm cells of S. aureusR. This study provides useful information for understanding gene expression patterns in the planktonic PLEKHM2 and biofilm cells of antibiotic-resistance pathogens exposed to acidic stress. Over the last decades, the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections has been rapidly increased because of the repeated and prolonged use of antibiotics, leading to a serious health problem worldwide (Wegener, 2003; Gootz, 2010). The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has become of great concern for public health, which widely appears as frequent outbreaks in recent years (Boonmar et al., 1998; Van et al., 2007). Therefore, prevention strategies for antibiotic resistance are essential to control the spread of antibiotic-resistant pathogens. However, the discovery and development of novel antibiotics has lagged behind the emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens because of the lengthy and expensive processes, requiring phases of clinical investigation trials to obtain approval, and the lack of information on the antibiotic resistance mechanisms (Yineyama & Katsumata, 2006).

Results of the tofacitinib-AS study are still pending. In this issue, a meta-analysis of adalimumab in AS by Wang et al. has reported higher efficacy as well as better quality of life without any major infection or serious adverse events[34]. buy Ipilimumab Prince et al. reported similar results with infliximab in a small Australian cohort[35]. Overall there are some excellent leads from pathogenic, genetic and functional studies in AS. The future

is bright and we can hope for newer and more effective drugs leaving behind the concept of ‘bamboo spine’ in oblivion. “
“To compare the prevalence of diverse histopathologic features among patients with Sjögren’s syndrome (SS) and controls, and to evaluate their relationship with age, a focus score (FS) ≥ 1 and some clinical and serological SS features. A blinded pathologist examined 63 SS and 11 control minor salivary gland biopsies. Focal lymphocytic sialadenitis (FLS) was defined as a focus score (FS) ≥ 1. We also evaluated lymphoepithelial lesions, germinal centers (GCs), epithelial metaplasia, dilatation

and hyperplasia in the main secretory duct, perivascular selleck screening library cell infiltrate, adipose infiltration, acinar atrophy, interstitial fibrosis and lymphocytes/plasma cells remote from the FLS. We registered demographics, anti-Ro/La status and clinical features. We used Kendall’s tau coefficients and logistic regression Baricitinib analysis. Sjögren’s syndrome patients had a higher frequency of FS ≥ 1 (92% vs. 27%), acinar atrophy (78% vs. 18%), lymphocytes and plasma cells external to the FSL (92% vs. 64%) and stromal fibrosis (68% vs. 36%). A FS ≥ 1 correlated

with the presence of GCs and acinar atrophy; whereas age correlated with duct dilation, duct epithelial hyperplasia, adipose infiltration and fibrosis. SS patients with hepatic involvement exhibited more frequent duct dilatation. After adjusting by age, anti-Ro/SSA (odds ratio [OR] 30.8, 95% CI 2.2–423.5, P = 0.01), a FS ≥ 1 (OR 54.3, 95% CI 4.8–612, P = 0.001) and fibrosis (OR 15.2, 95% CI 1.2–186.2, P = 0.03) were associated with SS. Other histologic findings coexist with FLS, but only GC formation and acinar atrophy correlated with a FS ≥ 1. Age is mostly correlated with the remaining histological features. However, the clinical relevance of these findings is unknown. “
“To describe Filipino patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) entered in the Rheumatoid arthritis database and registry (RADAR) of the Philippine General Hospital. Cases entered to RADAR from 2010–2012 were included. All fulfilled the 1987 American College of Rheumatology criteria for classification of RA. Included cases gave written infomed consent. Data extracted were demographics, clinical presentation, laboratory tests, treatment and disease course.

This was done more than 1 month before leaving by 47.5% of the responders; 25.1% started preparing 2 weeks to 1 month before departure, 15.7% did so 1 to 2 weeks in advance, and 11.6% did so less than 1 week before leaving. Of those who had not sought health information, the majority stated that they already knew what to do. The most common sources since 2004 for travel health advice to high-risk destinations were the travel clinic or

public health service (66.4%) followed by general practitioner (GP) or family doctor in 21.3% of the respondents. For low-to-intermediate-risk destinations the travel clinic selleck chemicals llc or public health service was consulted in 53.2% of the respondents, whereas the GP or family doctor was consulted in 27.8% of the cases. In the 2002 and 2003 questionnaires there was no item concerning source of advice. There were no significant trends over the Erlotinib concentration years in the proportion of travelers to high-risk destinations seeking travel

health advice (p = 0.315). In contrast, trend analyses in travelers to low-to-intermediate-risk destinations showed a decrease over the years in the proportion of travelers seeking travel health advice (p = 0.0005). The group of older adult travelers comprised 439 respondents. Of them, 365 (83.1%) traveled to a high-risk destination. The group of last-minute travelers comprised 545 respondents; 474 (87.0%) of them traveled to a high-risk destination. Of all respondents, 869 respondents traveled alone and were classified as solo travelers; 650 (74.8%) of them MRIP traveled to a high-risk destination. The group of business travelers consisted of 453 individuals of whom 330 (72.8%) traveled to destinations rated as a high risk for hepatitis A. The group of VFRs consisted of 521 respondents; 390 (74.9%) of them traveled to a high-risk destination (Table 1). Older adult travelers to either high-risk (p = 0.076) or low-to-intermediate-risk destinations (p = 0.434) did

not better prepare their vacation than younger-aged travelers to the same risk destination. Older adult travelers visited high-risk destinations more frequently (Table 1). The risk perception and protection rate of older adult travelers to either high-risk or low-to-intermediate-risk destinations was comparable to that of younger travelers (Table 2). Older adult travelers, however, had less intended risk-seeking behavior than younger travelers, irrespective of the hepatitis A risk at the planned destination. As a consequence, as shown in Table 3, the composite risk estimate of KAP of older adult travelers suggested a slight reduction of relative risk for hepatitis A. Solo travelers to either high- (p < 0.001) or low-risk destinations (p < 0.001) had less preparation for their travel than non-solo travelers to the same risk destination. Solo travelers traveled more frequently to low-to-intermediate-risk destinations than to high-risk destinations (Table 1).

The main tail fibers of xnp1 and xbp1 are mosaic structures with divergent C-terminal regions suggesting they differ in host specificity. Several genes encoding C-terminal tail fiber fragments are present in the same

position in xnp1 and xbp1. Recombination between the main fiber genes and the C-terminal fragments could potentially expand the host range specificity of xenorhabdicin in the respective strains. Bacteria are frequently subjected to infections by bacteriophage that can become resident prophage in the bacterial genome. Prophages can confer fitness advantages, virulence properties, and regions of genomic plasticity to the bacterial host (Asadulghani et al., 2009; Ogier et al., 2010). For instance, the bacteriophage gene pool of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 selleck inhibitor strain Sakai contains many prophage-derived virulence selleck factors (Brussow, 2006). Most of the 24 phage-related elements in E. coli O157:H7 contain genetic modifications and some are now mobile genetic elements capable of dissemination among E. coli strains upon prophage induction (Asadulghani et al., 2009). While the contributions of prophage elements to pathogenicity have been extensively studied, the role of prophage clusters in the

life cycle of mutualistic bacteria remains unclear. Members of the genus Xenorhabdus form mutualistic associations with entomopathogenic nematodes of the genus Steinernema. The bacteria reside in a specialized region of the anterior gut in the infective juvenile form of the nematode (Snyder et al., 2007). The nematode invades soil dwelling insects, migrates through the intestine, and penetrates the midgut to enter the hemocoel, where they release their symbiotic bacteria into the insect blood (hemolymph) to act as insect pathogens (Kaya & Gaugler, 1993; Forst et al., 1997; Goodrich-Blair & Clarke, 2007). Xenorhabdus nematophila provides a nutrient base for nematode reproduction and also produces antimicrobial compounds to suppress the growth of potential competitors (Morales-Soto et al., 2009). Of the 20 known Xenorhabdus species, only two have been sequenced to date; X. nematophila 19061 Aldol condensation and Xenorhabdus bovienii SS-2004,

symbionts of Steinernema carpocapsae and Steinernema jollieti, respectively (Chaston et al., 2011). The ability of X. nematophila to eliminate antagonistic competitors enhances the fitness of its nematode partner (Morales-Soto & Forst, 2011). Xenorhabdus nematophila produces a phage tail-like (R-type) bacteriocin called xenorhabdicin that can kill other Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus species (Boemare et al., 1992; Sicard et al., 2005; Morales-Soto & Forst, 2011). These proteinaceous structures resemble headless phage tail particles and are composed of conserved tail sheath and tube proteins, as well as several other structural proteins including tail fiber proteins involved in binding to target strains (Boemare et al., 1992; Baghdiguian et al., 1993; Thaler et al., 1995).

albicans. The importance of Xog1 for structural integrity is underlined by the fact that a mutation in XOG1 affects cell AZD2281 ic50 wall integrity (Gonzalez et al., 1997), suggesting it might also possess transglucosylase activity. Similarly involved in cell wall

integrity is the transglucosylase Bgl2 as the knockout mutant displays a wall defect and forms cell aggregates in stationary-phase cultures (Hartland et al., 1991; Sarthy et al., 1997). Bgl2 was only found in the medium at low levels at 42 °C and during fluconazole exposure. In S. cerevisiae, ScBgl2 is strongly associated with β-1,3-glucan and is robust enough to stay functionally active after SDS boiling (Klebl & Tanner, 1989). Intriguingly, free Bgl2 in the medium was able to bind β-1,3-glucan as well as chitin. Both Bgl2 and Xog1, together with the GPI-anchored transglycosylase Phr1, have been recently suggested to function in a β-glucan delivery system to the extracellular matrix, contributing to biofilm formation and drug resistance (Taff et al., 2012). Individual knockout mutants

formed less persistent biofilms that sequestered less fluconazole than the reference strain. Intriguingly, this phenotype did not affect the overall composition of β-glucan in the wall itself. As PHR1 and PHR2 serve the same function but are expressed at a different pH, Phr2 might contribute to biofilm formation as well. Taken together, this suggests that extracellular matrix formation is a key function of the secretome, leading to increased resistance to different stresses (e.g. antifungals). selleck chemicals Secretory proteins in the culture medium have multiple functions that are essential for fungal fitness and virulence (Fig. 3). Secreted proteins with wall-related functions are required for the constant remodeling of the wall due to morphological adaptations, growth and cell separation, and cell wall repair. This correlates with the high number of peptide identifications in almost all growth

conditions examined. Cht3, Mp65, Scw11, Sim1, Sun41, Tos1, Rutecarpine and Xog1 were found in every condition tested with ample peptide identifications (Table 1). As they are accessible and abundant, this set of proteins might be used in serological detection of invasive candidiasis, both by direct detection of these proteins in host samples and by detection of antibodies elicited in the host against these proteins (Laín et al., 2008; Ostrosky-Zeichner, 2012). Secreted hydrolytic enzymes generally serve tissue destruction and nutrient acquisition and are therefore closely linked to virulence. Conceivably, they could serve as suitable vaccine targets. Vaccines against Sap2 proved already to be effective against systemic and mucosal infections in mice (Vilanova et al., 2004; Sandini et al., 2011b). In summary, the proteomic analysis of the secretome is still in its infancy. Nonetheless, the importance of the secretome for many functions, especially wall remodeling and nutrient acquisition, is already clear.

In view of the genomic diversity of HIV where infant diagnosis will RGFP966 in vivo rely on HIV DNA amplification, a maternal sample should always be obtained for HIV DNA amplification with, or prior to, the first infant sample to confirm that the primers used detect the maternal virus. If the maternal virus cannot be detected then a different primer set and/or test should be used. Infant HIV diagnostic testing should be undertaken at birth, 6 weeks and 12 weeks of age. Evidence from the French perinatal cohort demonstrated that neonatal ART, especially if more than

one drug, can delay the detection of both HIV DNA and RNA in the infant [309]. For this reason, the second and third HIV molecular tests are performed at 2 weeks and 2 months after stopping

PEP (i.e. usually at 6 weeks and 12 weeks of age). If all tests are negative and the baby is not being/has not been breastfed, then parents can be informed that the child is not HIV infected. For infants at high risk of infection an additional early HIV test maybe undertaken at 2–3 weeks of age. For infants breastfeeding from mothers on HAART (see above), HIV viral diagnostic tests should be undertaken at least monthly on mother and infant while breastfeeding, and then twice on the infant, ideally between 2 and 8 weeks after weaning. Loss of maternal HIV antibodies should be confirmed at 18–24 months of age. Ideally, an HIV antibody test should be used to confirm loss of maternal antibodies rather than a combined HIV antibody–antigen test. The latest tests are highly MK-1775 in vivo sensitive and may give a positive HIV result until up to 2 years of age [310]. Testing for loss of maternal HIV antibody L-gulonolactone oxidase remains important as rarely, late postnatal infection may occur, even when all early HIV viral genome diagnostic tests were negative (French Perinatal cohort: five of 4539 cases) [311]. This may be due to

covert breastfeeding, premastication of infant food or unknown intrafamilial exposure. If any of the infant HIV tests are found to be positive, an immediate repeat on a new sample should be requested to confirm infection. When an infant is found to be HIV positive, PCP prophylaxis should be started immediately, if the baby is not already on it, and an urgent referral to the local specialist HIV clinic should be made to initiate infant HAART. Maternal and infant HIV resistance testing should be undertaken to help delineate reasons for treatment failure and guide treatment. HIV services for children in the UK are organized in managed networks, details of the Children’s HIV Network (CHIN) and contacts for local paediatricians can be found on the CHIVA website (http://www.chiva.org.uk) [312]. Rarely, pregnant mothers refuse treatment for their own HIV as well as interventions to reduce the risk of transmission to their unborn infant.