5, E11.5 and E12.5, respectively (Fig. 1D). Thus, Purkinje cells were more specifically transfected when IUE was performed at earlier time points (P < 0.05 for E10.5 vs. E11.5, P < 0.0001 for E11.5 vs. E12.5 and E12.5 vs. E10.5, χ2 test with Bonferroni correction). These results indicate that when IUE was performed in a spatially directed manner by adjusting the position of the electrode and optimizing the orientation of the electrical field

at E10.5–E12.5, exogenous genes could be efficiently and preferentially introduced into Purkinje cells in vivo. We occasionally observed a small number of EGFP-positive, calbindin-negative neurons in the granular layer that morphologically corresponded to Golgi cells (Fig. S2A). Golgi cells and Purkinje cells arise Palbociclib from the ventricular zone at distinct but overlapping developmental stages in mice (Miale & Sidman,

1961; Wang & Zoghbi, 2001; Hashimoto & Mikoshiba, 2003). On very rare occasions, we observed EGFP-positive puncta in the granular layer of cerebella that underwent IUE at E12.5 (Fig. S2B and a). These puncta were immunopositive for a neuronal marker, neurofilament (Fig. S2B and b), negative for Nissl staining (Fig. S2B and c), LBH589 immunonegative for a glial marker, GFAP (Fig. S2B and d), and immunopositive for vesicular glutamate transporter 1, a marker for glutamatergic nerve terminals (Fig. S2B and e). These results indicate that, depending on subtle differences in the diagonal angle of the electrodes, plasmids could also be incorporated into precerebellar nuclei neurons, which are generated in the caudal rhombic lip at around E12.5, which expressed EGFP in mossy fibers. In addition, we observed a small number of EGFP-positive neurons in the deep cerebellar nucleus (Fig. S3A), which are produced in the rostal rhombic lip around

E11.5 (Miale & Sidman, 1961). Outside the cerebellum, we occasionally observed EGFP-positive cells in the parabrachial nucleus and dorsal cochlear nucleus (Fig. 3D and S3B), which are produced in the caudal rhombic lip between E10 and 12.5 (Wang, 2005, Pierce, 1967). As EGFP positive cells in the dorsal cochlear nucleus were immunopositive for carbonic anhydrase related protein 8 (Fig. S3B), they probably correspond to cartwheel cells in the dorsal cochlear nucleus. Nevertheless, in all cases in which the spatially directed IUE was carried out at E11.5, the vast majority of transfected Thiamet G cells were calbindin-positive Purkinje cells. Purkinje cells are particularly vulnerable cerebellar neurons (Slemmer et al., 2005). Thus, to ensure that the repetitive voltage pulses during IUE (De Vry et al., 2010) did not alter the developmental profile and physiological characteristics of the Purkinje cells, we performed IUE at E11.5 and examined the functional properties of the Purkinje cells at P25–P28. Confocal microscopy of fixed parasagittal sections of the vermis showed that the electroporated Purkinje cells appeared grossly normal, with elaborate dendrites and spines (Fig.