Clinical

trial sites and supporting laboratories in low-income countries should be identified and developed to conduct phase 1 trials, and public–private partnerships should be encouraged. Prophylactic vaccines must be tested in populations where the prevalence and incidence of HSV-2 are the highest and where the vaccines are most desperately needed. To accomplish this, ongoing assessment of robustness and performance of diagnostic assays and standardization across high- and low-income sites will be needed. Any future clinical trials should consider randomization and analysis by sex and HSV-1 serostatus. Finally, Pexidartinib mathematical modeling will be important to predict the population impact of varying levels of vaccine efficacy, incorporating potential differences by sex and HSV-1 serostatus. Meeting participants agreed that pursuit of a chlamydia vaccine is important, because of the substantial prevalence of chlamydial infection throughout the world [8], the link with adverse outcomes such as tubal-factor infertility, and the difficulty and expense

of chlamydia control using current opportunistic screening strategies [9]. Chlamydia is a global problem, but the prevalence of chlamydia has been much better described in high-income than low-income countries. In addition, although numerous studies have established the associations between chlamydia and pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), ectopic pregnancy, tubal-factor infertility, and other sequelae, the global disease burden related to chlamydia has been difficult to estimate MRIP precisely.

Gaps in knowledge of Fulvestrant manufacturer the natural history of chlamydial infection include the progression rate, timing, and factors associated with ascension from lower genital tract infection to upper tract disease. The mechanisms for chlamydia-induced protective immunity versus immunopathology have not been fully defined, but several animal models, the human “model” provided by ocular infection, and translational studies have elucidated several key factors, which are summarized by Hafner et al. in this issue [10]. It is clear that T-cell driven interferon-gamma responses are critical for clearing infection, and antibody responses, while not protective alone, are also important. Early clinical trials of killed or live whole organism vaccines against ocular C. trachomatis infection (trachoma) showed that it was possible to induce short-term immunity to infection and to reduce the incidence of scarring sequelae; however, use of these crude whole organism vaccines resulted in increased severity of inflammation upon subsequent challenge in some animal models [11]. Further research is needed to continue the search for target antigens providing the greatest amount of vaccine protection and to confirm that a new vaccine does not lead to more severe disease on subsequent exposure to infection.