bakeri by passage in naïve and immune hosts (131–133). Murine host resistance is linked to genes located both within and outside of the MHC (132). Selection in immune hosts tends to reduce the immunogenicity Opaganib of the parasite, as measured by eosinophilia, lymphocytosis in the spleen and regional lymph nodes and antibody response (131). We have found that H. bakeri establishes long-term primary infections of at least 120 days duration in CBA/Ca and BALB/c mice (76,77). Host resistance in primary infections is not enhanced by overexpression of IL-5(76), and conversely, the intensity of infection is not enhanced by deletion of IL-5 (69) or eotaxin (76). Although an eosinophilic inflammatory response surrounds

larvae embedded in the duodenal wall and irradiated larvae appear to induce resistance at this stage of infection, these results suggest that eosinophils play little role in protecting against this parasite. Wild-type FVB/N mice, which are highly resistant to N. brasiliensis, most likely in the pre-lung phase, are no more resistant to H. bakeri than WT CBA/Ca mice (77). Our studies with H. bakeri were terminated after more than 4 months, when egg production in WT, eotaxin−/− and STAT6−/− mice was 50–100% of that seen in the first three

weeks of infection (76), so we have yet to determine whether expulsion is affected by the deletion of these genes. H. bakeri is generally considered to be capable of inducing strong immunosuppression (134–136) check and so deletion of eotaxin or STAT6 may have little additional impact. As a parasite largely restricted to the gut, it is also unlikely to be 5-Fluoracil clinical trial exposed to the same array of mechanisms that protect against N. brasiliensis and S. ratti. T. canis elicits strong peripheral blood eosinophilia and eosinophil-rich granulomas can surround larvae. Although anti-IL-5 antibody treatment can suppress eosinophilia in mice infected with T. canis, it does not increase larval load in the liver (137), an observation supported by the observation that IL-5−/− mice are no more susceptible to T. canis than WT controls (138). In conjunction with Jim Parsons (Victorian Institute of Animal Science), we have shown that

in IL-5 Tg mice infected with T. canis, the numbers of larvae recovered from liver, brain and muscle are comparable to those in WT littermates (64). It would seem then that T. canis is neither enhanced nor disadvantaged by eosinophilia and larvae are resistant to damage and killing by eosinophils, though these cells may contribute to lung pathology (138). Eosinophilia is suppressed in T. canis-infected pregnant and lactating dogs and this may allow larvae to escape granulomas, thereby facilitating transmission to offspring. Although T. canis does not suppress eosinophilia in our murine models, excretory-secretory proteins released from T. canis larvae in vitro do impact on eosinophil behaviour and protective innate anti-nematode resistance (139).